Roup were indicated as follows: * for p#0.05, ** for p#0.01 and *** for p#0.001.Mice and immunisationsEthics 
Statement: All animals were handled and procedures performed in strict accordance with the terms of a project licence (PPL 70/6613) granted under the UK Home Office Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 and the study was approved by the animal ethics committee of St. George’s University of London. Mice were maintained in conditions conforming to UK Home Office guidelines to ameliorate suffering and 1676428 were euthanized by cervical dislocation. Female BALB/c mice, aged 6? weeks were purchased from Harlan. For vaginal immunisation protocols, prior to the first immunisation mice were given subcutaneously 2 mg of medroxyprogesterone acetate (Pharmacia Limited). Nasal and vaginal immunisations were performed in a final volume of 20 ml containing 10 mg of Naringin biological activity antigen (either gp140 or Tetanus Toxoid) and either 20 mg of TLR ligand or 100 mg of chitosan, in PBS. Sublingual immunisations were performed using the same amount of antigen and ligand in a final volume of 10 ml and, after each immunisation, animals were kept under anaesthesia with their head positioned in ante-flexion for 10 min to avoid swallowing. For the parenteral route, mice were immunised subcutaneously with the same amounts of antigen (10 mg) and adjuvant (20 mg for TLR ligands and 100 mg for chitosan) in a final volume of 50 ml. All the animals were vaccinated three times with an interval of twoResultsIn order to determine the impact of the route of immunisation on systemic and vaginal humoral responses to gp140, animals were immunised by sublingual, nasal, vaginal and parenteral routes with a range of TLR ligands (FSL-1 (TLR2/6), poly I:C (TLR3), MPLA (TLR4), CpG-B (TLR9), Pam3CSK4 (TLR1/2), R848 (TLR7/8)) and chitosan. To evaluate the influence of the antigen on the responses to mucosal immunisation parallel experiments were performed using Tetanus Toxoid (TT).Sublingual immunisation with gp140 and TTSublingual immunisation with CN54gp140 induced good systemic IgG responses, with endpoint titres up to 105 when the antigen was administered alone. A similar pattern in IgG and IgA responses was observed when the antigen was given in combination with FSL-1, Pam3CSK4, R848 or chitosan, whilst poly I:C significantly PD-168393 supplier increased systemic IgG and IgA titres (p = 0.03 and p = 
0.015 respectively). MPLA was the only adjuvant candidate that appeared to dampen specific responses (Figure 1A and B). InMucosal TLR Adjuvants for HIV-gpvaginal wash samples, low but detectable IgG responses were observed in some animals (Figure 1C), however these were inconsistent with none of the groups showing detectable responses in all animals. In contrast, IgA titres were detected in all animals where antigen was administered with FSL-1, poly I:C, Pam3CSK4 or CpG B. (Figure 1C and D). IgG subclass analysis was performed to determine specific IgG1:IgG2a ratios as a surrogate of Th1/Th2 biasing of systemic humoral responses. When gp140 was administered alone the IgG1/IgG2a ratio was 11 suggesting a Th2-biased response (Figure S1A). This trend was maintained for all adjuvants and appeared to be enhanced with Poly I:C, R848 and chitosan, although not statistically different to gp140 alone. To determine the impact of the antigen on specific responses induced by sublingual immunisation, parallel experiments were performed using Tetanus toxoid (TT). TT induced strong humoral systemic responses (mean specific IgG.Roup were indicated as follows: * for p#0.05, ** for p#0.01 and *** for p#0.001.Mice and immunisationsEthics Statement: All animals were handled and procedures performed in strict accordance with the terms of a project licence (PPL 70/6613) granted under the UK Home Office Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986 and the study was approved by the animal ethics committee of St. George’s University of London. Mice were maintained in conditions conforming to UK Home Office guidelines to ameliorate suffering and 1676428 were euthanized by cervical dislocation. Female BALB/c mice, aged 6? weeks were purchased from Harlan. For vaginal immunisation protocols, prior to the first immunisation mice were given subcutaneously 2 mg of medroxyprogesterone acetate (Pharmacia Limited). Nasal and vaginal immunisations were performed in a final volume of 20 ml containing 10 mg of antigen (either gp140 or Tetanus Toxoid) and either 20 mg of TLR ligand or 100 mg of chitosan, in PBS. Sublingual immunisations were performed using the same amount of antigen and ligand in a final volume of 10 ml and, after each immunisation, animals were kept under anaesthesia with their head positioned in ante-flexion for 10 min to avoid swallowing. For the parenteral route, mice were immunised subcutaneously with the same amounts of antigen (10 mg) and adjuvant (20 mg for TLR ligands and 100 mg for chitosan) in a final volume of 50 ml. All the animals were vaccinated three times with an interval of twoResultsIn order to determine the impact of the route of immunisation on systemic and vaginal humoral responses to gp140, animals were immunised by sublingual, nasal, vaginal and parenteral routes with a range of TLR ligands (FSL-1 (TLR2/6), poly I:C (TLR3), MPLA (TLR4), CpG-B (TLR9), Pam3CSK4 (TLR1/2), R848 (TLR7/8)) and chitosan. To evaluate the influence of the antigen on the responses to mucosal immunisation parallel experiments were performed using Tetanus Toxoid (TT).Sublingual immunisation with gp140 and TTSublingual immunisation with CN54gp140 induced good systemic IgG responses, with endpoint titres up to 105 when the antigen was administered alone. A similar pattern in IgG and IgA responses was observed when the antigen was given in combination with FSL-1, Pam3CSK4, R848 or chitosan, whilst poly I:C significantly increased systemic IgG and IgA titres (p = 0.03 and p = 0.015 respectively). MPLA was the only adjuvant candidate that appeared to dampen specific responses (Figure 1A and B). InMucosal TLR Adjuvants for HIV-gpvaginal wash samples, low but detectable IgG responses were observed in some animals (Figure 1C), however these were inconsistent with none of the groups showing detectable responses in all animals. In contrast, IgA titres were detected in all animals where antigen was administered with FSL-1, poly I:C, Pam3CSK4 or CpG B. (Figure 1C and D). IgG subclass analysis was performed to determine specific IgG1:IgG2a ratios as a surrogate of Th1/Th2 biasing of systemic humoral responses. When gp140 was administered alone the IgG1/IgG2a ratio was 11 suggesting a Th2-biased response (Figure S1A). This trend was maintained for all adjuvants and appeared to be enhanced with Poly I:C, R848 and chitosan, although not statistically different to gp140 alone. To determine the impact of the antigen on specific responses induced by sublingual immunisation, parallel experiments were performed using Tetanus toxoid (TT). TT induced strong humoral systemic responses (mean specific IgG.
