Il due to its hydrophobic nature [27]. In India, the maximum amounts of fungicide usage are found in southern India, followed by western,Azole Resistant A. fumigatus from IndiaAzole Resistant A. fumigatus from IndiaFigure 2. Genotypic relationship between the wild-type and TR34/L98H Aspergillus fumigatus (clinical and environmental isolates from India, The Netherlands and AKT inhibitor 2 France) and TR34/L98H A. fumigatus (clinical isolates from China and Germany). The dendrogram is based on a categorical analysis of 9 microsatellite markers in combination with UPGMA clustering. The scale bar indicates the percentage identity. Clinical: blue, Environmental: yellow, Resistant: red, Susceptible: green. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052871.geastern and northern Indian states. In this study the multi triazole resistant A. fumigatus carrying the TR34/L98H genotype was isolated from Union Territory (UT) of Delhi (northern region), West Bengal and Bihar (eastern region of India about 1100 Km from the North) and Tamil Nadu (southern region of India, about 2100 Km from the North) states. The western region of India has yet to be surveyed but considering the high usage of fungicides in this region, isolation of azole resistant A. fumigatus may be anticipated. Previous environmental surveys of azole resistant A. fumigatus have only been reported from Europe (the Netherlands andDenmark) and those surveys identified that 12 (6/49) of Dutch soil samples and 8 (4/50) of Danish soil samples were positive for the TR34/L98H genotype [15,17]. Only one other mutation in the ZK-36374 supplier cyp51A gene combined with a different tandem repeat (TR46/ Y121F/T289A) that was putatively linked to an environmental origin has been reported from clinical samples [28] and this genotype constituted 36 of resistant isolates in a Dutch referral centre [29]. The present study represents one of the largest environmental surveys of multi-triazole resistant A. fumigatus done so far and detected that 7 of the A. fumigatus isolates and 5 of soil/aerial samples distributed across large areas of India carriedFigure 3. Minimum spanning tree showing wide genotypic diversity in the TR34/L98H and wild type A. fumigatus isolates studied. The figure shows the 74 different genotypes (circles), the number of strains belonging to the same genotype (sizes of the circles), and origin of isolates (circles in yellow indicate Indian isolates; green Dutch isolates; red Chinese isolates; blue French isolates, purple German isolate and white reference strain, AF293). Solid thick and thin branches indicates 1 or 2 microsatellite markers differences, respectively; dashed branches indicates 3 microsatellite markers difference between two genotypes; 4 or more microsatellite markers differences between genotypes are indicated with dotted branches. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052871.gAzole Resistant A. fumigatus from Indiaone single resistant mechanism. Culture of soil samples taken from potted plants (where commercial compost was used) and kept inside the hospital premises were positive for the same genotype. In contrast, natural soil sampled from the gardens of Delhi and hospitals did not grow the resistant A. fumigatus isolates although they were positive for A. fumigatus. Our findings corroborate with the findings of a Dutch environmental report where none of the A. fumigatus isolates obtained from natural soil was found to be azole resistant [15]. Therefore, environmental surveys for detection of genotype TR34/L98H resistant A.Il due to its hydrophobic nature [27]. In India, the maximum amounts of fungicide usage are found in southern India, followed by western,Azole Resistant A. fumigatus from IndiaAzole Resistant A. fumigatus from IndiaFigure 2. Genotypic relationship between the wild-type and TR34/L98H Aspergillus fumigatus (clinical and environmental isolates from India, The Netherlands and France) and TR34/L98H A. fumigatus (clinical isolates from China and Germany). The dendrogram is based on a categorical analysis of 9 microsatellite markers in combination with UPGMA clustering. The scale bar indicates the percentage identity. Clinical: blue, Environmental: yellow, Resistant: red, Susceptible: green. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052871.geastern and northern Indian states. In this study the multi triazole resistant A. fumigatus carrying the TR34/L98H genotype was isolated from Union Territory (UT) of Delhi (northern region), West Bengal and Bihar (eastern region of India about 1100 Km from the North) and Tamil Nadu (southern region of India, about 2100 Km from the North) states. The western region of India has yet to be surveyed but considering the high usage of fungicides in this region, isolation of azole resistant A. fumigatus may be anticipated. Previous environmental surveys of azole resistant A. fumigatus have only been reported from Europe (the Netherlands andDenmark) and those surveys identified that 12 (6/49) of Dutch soil samples and 8 (4/50) of Danish soil samples were positive for the TR34/L98H genotype [15,17]. Only one other mutation in the cyp51A gene combined with a different tandem repeat (TR46/ Y121F/T289A) that was putatively linked to an environmental origin has been reported from clinical samples [28] and this genotype constituted 36 of resistant isolates in a Dutch referral centre [29]. The present study represents one of the largest environmental surveys of multi-triazole resistant A. fumigatus done so far and detected that 7 of the A. fumigatus isolates and 5 of soil/aerial samples distributed across large areas of India carriedFigure 3. Minimum spanning tree showing wide genotypic diversity in the TR34/L98H and wild type A. fumigatus isolates studied. The figure shows the 74 different genotypes (circles), the number of strains belonging to the same genotype (sizes of the circles), and origin of isolates (circles in yellow indicate Indian isolates; green Dutch isolates; red Chinese isolates; blue French isolates, purple German isolate and white reference strain, AF293). Solid thick and thin branches indicates 1 or 2 microsatellite markers differences, respectively; dashed branches indicates 3 microsatellite markers difference between two genotypes; 4 or more microsatellite markers differences between genotypes are indicated with dotted branches. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052871.gAzole Resistant A. fumigatus from Indiaone single resistant mechanism. Culture of soil samples taken from potted plants (where commercial compost was used) and kept inside the hospital premises were positive for the same genotype. In contrast, natural soil sampled from the gardens of Delhi and hospitals did not grow the resistant A. fumigatus isolates although they were positive for A. fumigatus. Our findings corroborate with the findings of a Dutch environmental report where none of the A. fumigatus isolates obtained from natural soil was found to be azole resistant [15]. Therefore, environmental surveys for detection of genotype TR34/L98H resistant A.
